Table 4 Beta coefficients (β) and 95% confidence interval (CIs) for the association of characteristics of participants with neurocognitive and behavioral outcomes (N = 454)
Risk factors | Language | Attention | Memory | Perceptual-motor | Executive functioning | Behavioral problems | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Literacy | Language | Cognitive flexibility | Response inhibition | Working memory | Fine motor | Non-verbal intelligence | Numeracy | Total problems | |||
Biological factors | |||||||||||
Tungiasis infection status | Control | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
Mild | − 11.7 (− 20.4, − 3)** | − 2.2 (− 3.7, − 0.6)** | − 6.7 (− 11.3, − 2)** | − 1.6 (− 3.8 to 0.5) | − 0.4 (− 0.7, − 0.1)* | − 0.3 (− 0.7 to 0.1) | 0.3 (− 1 to 1.6) | − 1.2 (− 3.9 to 1.4) | 1.9 (− 2.7 to 6.5) | ||
Severe | − 6.6 (− 15.3 to 2.1) | − 0.2 (− 1.7 to 1.4) | 2.1 (− 2.5 to 6.8) | − 1.4 (− 3.5 to 0.7) | − 0.1 (− 0.4 to 0.1) | − 0.6 (− 1, − 0.2)** | 0.9 (− 0.4 to 2.2) | − 1.8 (− 4.5 to 0.8) | 4.7 (0 to 9.3)* | ||
Nutritional status | Underweight | − 5.6 (− 16.2 to 5.0) | − 1.2 (− 3 to 0.7) | − 2.1 (− 7.8 to 3.5) | − 2.4 (− 4.9 to 0.1) | − 0.2 (− 0.5 to 0.2) | − 0.3 (− 0.7 to 0.2) | 0.9 (− 0.6 to 2.5) | − 3.2 (− 6.4, − 0.1)* | 0.6 (− 5.1 to 6.2) | |
Stunting | − 12.3 (− 23.5, − 1.1)* | − 2.5 (− 4.5, − 0.6)* | 0.3 (− 5.7 to 6.4) | − 0.8 (− 3.5 to 1.9) | − 0.4 (− 0.8, − 0.1)* | − 0.5 (− 1 to 0) | − 0.6 (− 2.2 to 1.1) | − 5.4 (− 8.8, − 2.1)** | 0.5 (− 5.5 to 6.5) | ||
Wasting | 0.2 (− 1.9 to 2.2) | 0.3 (0 to 0.7) | 0.3 (− 0.8 to 1.4) | 0.6 (0.2 to 1.1)** | 0 (0 to 0.1) | 0 (− 0.1 to 0.1) | − 0.1 (− 0.4 to 0.2) | 0.1 (− 0.5 to 0.7) | − 0.5 (− 1.6 to 0.6) | ||
Disability (yes) | −4.8(−20.5 to 11.0) | − 2.2 (− 4.9 to 0.6) | − 6.9 (− 15.3 to 1.6) | − 0.9 (− 4.7 to 2.9) | − 0.3 (− 0.9 to 0.2) | − 0.5 (− 1.2 to 0.2) | − 1.6 (− 3.9 to 0.7) | − 3.3 (− 8 to 1.5) | 0.1 (− 8.3 to 8.4) | ||
Perinatal complications (Yes) | 7.2(− 3.5 to 17.9) | 1.4 (− 0.5 to 3.2) | 2.1 (− 3.6 to 7.9) | 3.7 (1.2 to 6.2)** | 0.1 (− 0.2 to 0.5) | − 0.1 (− 0.6 to 0.4) | 1.7 (0.1 to 3.2) | 0.6 (− 2.7 to 3.8) | 0.5 (− 5.2 to 6.2) | ||
Sociodemographic factors | |||||||||||
Residence | Siaya | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
Kwale | 2.3 (− 7.4 to 11.9) | − 2.3 (− 3.6, − 0.9)** | − 11 (− 16.1, − 6)** | − 1.5 (− 3.3 to 0.3) | − 0.2 (− 0.5 to 0.1) | 0.1 (− 0.2 to 0.4) | 1.3 (0.1 to 2.5)* | − 0.5 (− 3.3 to 2.4) | 11.8 (5.3 to 18.3)** | ||
Bugiri | − 44.6 (− 57.2, − 32.1)** | − 6.7 (− 8.8, − 4.6)** | − 15.3 (− 22.3, − 8.2)** | − 6.7 (− 9.6, − 3.8)** | − 0.9 (− 1.3, − 0.5)** | − 1 (− 1.5, − 0.5)** | − 1.5 (− 3.3 to 0.4) | − 6 (− 9.9, − 2.1)** | − 8.4 (− 15.6, − 1.1) | ||
SES | 3.2(− 2.3 to 8.8) | 1.3 (0.4 to 2.2)** | 5.4 (2.5 to 8.3)** | 0.6 (− 0.6 to 1.8) | 0.2 (0 to 0.4)* | 0.1 (− 0.1 to 0.3) | 0.2 (− 0.6 to 1.0) | 0.8 (− 0.8 to 2.4) | − 2.5 (− 5.6 to 0.7) | ||
Psychosocial factors | |||||||||||
School absenteeism (Yes) | − 23.4 (− 42.4, − 4.3)* | − 3.8 (− 7.1, − 0.5)* | − 0.4 (− 10.7 to 9.9) | − 3.3 (− 7.8 to 1.2) | − 0.7 (− 1.3, − 0)* | − 0.2 (− 1.0 to 0.7) | 1.8 (− 1.0 to 4.6) | 2 (1.3 to 2.7) | 1.7 (− 8.5 to 11.9) | ||
Orphan hood (Yes) | − 11.7 (− 25.9 to 2.4) | 0 (− 2.5 to 2.5) | 2.4 (− 5.2 to 10.1) | − 1 (− 4.4 to 2.4) | − 0.3 (− 0.7 to 0.2) | − 0.1 (− 0.8 to 0.5) | − 1 (− 3.1 to 1.1) | − 1.9 (− 7.7 to 3.9) | 6.3 (− 1.3 to 13.9) | ||
Household size (> 2 adults) | − 6.2 (− 13.4 to 0.9) | − 0.7 (− 2 to 0.5) | − 1.3 (− 5.1 to 2.6) | − 1.1 (− 2.8 to 0.6) | − 0.3 (− 0.5, − 0)* | 0 (− 0.3 to 0.4) | 0.8 (− 0.2 to 1.9) | − 4.5 (− 8.8, − 0.3)* | 0.1 (− 3.7 to 3.9) | ||
Ill family member (Yes) | − 3.7 (− 17.3 to 3.7) | 1 (− 0.3 to 2.4) | 9.2 (5.3 to 13.2)** | − 2.1 (− 3.8, − 0.4)* | − 0.1 (− 0.3 to 0.2) | − 0.2 (− 0.6 to 0.1) | 0.1 (− 1.0 to 1.2) | − 1.6 (− 3.8 to 0.6) | 5.2 (1.1 to 9.2)* | ||
HH factors | Sex of HH head (male) | 4 (− 4.5 to 12.5) | − 1.3 (− 2.8 to 0.2) | 1.7 (− 2.9 to 6.3) | − 1.1 (− 3.1 to 1.0) | 0.2 (− 0.1 to 0.4) | 0.2 (− 0.1 to 0.6) | − 0.5 (− 1.8 to 0.7) | − 1.2 (− 3.4 to 1.1) | − 1.6 (− 6.1 to 3.0) | |
Relation of HH head to child (child) | − 5.3 (− 13.0 to 2.5) | − 0.3 (− 1.7 to 1.1) | 0.6 (− 3.6 to 4.8) | − 0.8 (− 2.7 to 1.0) | 0.1 (− 0.1 to 0.4) | − 0.1 (− 0.4 to 0.3) | − 0.3 (− 1.4 to 0.9) | 1.1 (− 1.5 to 3.7) | 2.6 (− 1.5 to 6.7) | ||
Age of HH head | 0.0 (− 0.2 to 0.3) | 0 (0 to 0.1) | 0 (− 0.1 to 0.2) | 0 (0 to 0.1) | 0 (0 to 0) | 0 (0 to 0) | 0 (0 to 0.1) | − 0.8 (− 3.2 to 1.5) | − 0.1 (− 0.2 to 0) | ||
CG factors | Sex of CG (male) | 7.3 (− 5.3 to 20.1) | − 0.9 (− 3.1 to 1.3) | 0.6 (− 6.3 to 7.4) | 1.9 (− 1.2 to 4.9) | 0.5 (0.1 to 0.9)* | − 0.1 (− 0.7 to 0.4) | − 1 (− 2.8 to 0.9) | 0 (− 0.1 to 0.1) | − 0.9 (− 7.7 to 5.9) | |
Relation of CG to child (mother) | 0.5 (− 7.7 to 6.8) | 1.3 (0.1 to 2.6)* | 2.4 (− 1.5 to 6.2) | 0.9 (− 0.8 to 2.6) | 0.1 (− 0.1 to 0.4) | 0.1 (− 0.2 to 0.4) | 0 (− 1.1 to 1.1) | 1.6 (− 2.3 to 5.4) | − 0.5 (− 4.4 to 3.3) | ||
Age of CG | − 0.1 (− 0.2 to 0.3) | 0 (0 to 0.1) | 0 (− 0.1 to 0.2) | 0 (0 to 0.1) | 0 (0 to 0) | 0 (0 to 0) | 0 (0 to 0.1) | − 0.2 (− 2.4 to 2.0) | − 0.2 (− 0.3 to 0)* | ||
Time CG with child (a lot) | − 2.9 (− 10.5 to 4.8) | − 0.3 (− 1.6 to 1) | − 3.9 (− 7.9 to 0.2) | − 0.4 (− 2.2 to 1.4) | 0.2 (− 0.1 to 0.4) | − 0.1 (− 0.4 to 0.3) | − 0.1 (− 1.2 to 1.1) | 0 (− 0.1 to 0.1) | − 5.1 (− 9.1, − 1)* | ||
CG Cuddle/Hug (Yes) | − 7.2 (− 15.2 to 0.9) | − 1.6 (− 3, − 0.2)* | − 4.9 (− 9.1, − 0.6)* | − 0.6 (− 2.5 to 1.3) | 0.2 (− 0.1 to 0.4) | − 0.1 (− 0.5 to 0.2) | − 0.8 (− 2 to 0.4) | 0.8 (− 1.5 to 3.1) | − 0.8 (− 5.3 to 3.6) | ||
CG Child correction (others) | 5.8 (− 1.6 to 12.3) | − 0.5 (− 1.8 to 0.8) | − 1.1 (− 5.1 to 2.9) | 2.4 (0.6 to 4.1) | 0 (− 0.3 to 0.2) | 0.1 (− 0.2 to 0.4) | − 0.1 (− 1.2 to 1.0) | − 1.1 (− 3.5 to 1.4) | − 0.3 (− 4.3 to 3.7) | ||
CG depression | − 5.4 (− 12.7 to 1.9) | − 0.9 (− 2.1 to 0.4) | − 2 (− 5.9 to 1.9) | − 1.3 (− 3.0 to 0.4) | − 0.3 (− 0.5, − 0.1)* | − 0.6 (− 0.9, − 0.3)** | 0.3 (− 0.7 to 1.4) | 1.1 (− 1.2 to 3.4) | 11.3 (7.6 to 15.1)** | ||
CG stress | − 0.2 (− 0.6 to 0.2) | − 0.1 (− 0.2 to 0)* | 0 (− 0.2 to 0.3) | − 0.2 (− 0.3, − 0.1)** | 0 (0 to 0)** | 0 (0 to 0) | 0 (0 to 0.1) | − 1.1 (− 3.3 to 1.1) | 0.4 (0.1 to 0.6)** | ||